Do You Have To Register Your Real Name On 23andme

[Update: If you're interested in learning more you can likewise check out a new project that I'm involved with: DNASquirrel – helping y'all protect your genetic privacy when taking23andMe, Ancestry, or other direct-to-consumer genetic exam.]

I'm thinking about sending my DNA in to 23andMe anonymously. I'll explain why, and how I programme on doing it.

I'm curious about what 23andMe and similar direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing services tin tell me about my health, near where my ancestors called habitation, and nigh what makes me unique (or not) as a human. Having spent the concluding decade working equally a scientist in the field of medical diagnostics, I'one thousand perhaps fifty-fifty more than curious to get my easily on the ~700,000 raw data points that they will extract from my Dna. Most of this data won't actually be used to create my personalized health and ancestry reports, only nevertheless contains a treasure trove of information almost me and my family.

For case, I'm curious about creating DIY genetic tests for predicting hazard of lymphedema.

But this unprecedented insight into my genetic makeup comes at a cost, and it's not but monetary. Ownership of my DNA is a large business for me, and this places me at directly odds with what DTC genetic test providers are really after: non just my $99 USD, simply permanent ownership of my personal genetic blueprint.

Contents

• ane Why do I desire to take 23andMe anonymously?
• 2 Doesn't 23andMe already protect my privacy?
• 3 Do even scientists and policy makers know how to safeguard my genetic privacy?
• 4 How piece of cake would it really be for someone to identify me from my genetic profile?
  • 4.ane Office 1: How likely is it that existing genetic databases incorporate at to the lowest degree a distant cousin of mine?
  • 4.2 Part 2: How likely is it that a match to my afar cousin could expose my identity?
• v What if I delete my business relationship with 23andMe after I get my results? Volition this protect my privacy?
• vi Is it actually possible to get anonymous 23andMe results?
  • half dozen.ane What key information must I keep safety to preserve my genetic privacy?
  • 6.2 A footstep-by-pace approach to anonymous 23andMe testing
  • 6.three Is this strategy bullet-proof?
  • vi.four Is anonymizing my 23andMe results in this way illegal? Unethical?
• 7 Am I going to go my 23andMe results anonymously?
• 8 References

Why do I want to take 23andMe anonymously?

I'1000 wary about giving my personal genetic blueprint (my 'genome') to a corporation, especially a privately held corporation whose business model rests not on consumer sales, just on a potentially much larger secondary marketplace. This secondary market currently consists of selling the so-called 'anonymized' genomes of its customers to big pharma for research purposes, but in the future could involve something more.

To be off-white, 23andMe and similar companies explicitly inquire customers to opt-in to 'sharing' their data with third-parties for research purposes, and information technology seems that nearly eighty% of their customers agree to this. Information technology's also FANTASTIC that these genomic resources are being created and shared, and they will no dubiousness atomic number 82 to life-changing therapies for debilitating atmospheric condition.

But would these lxxx% of people experience less inclined to opt-in if they understood that:

1. You are contributing to an incredibly valuable corporate nugget that will be sold to 3rd-parties. 23andMe's genetic database stands to generate significant revenue both now (such as a $300 million drug development deal with GlaxoSmithKline in 2018) and in perpetuity. You do not know who these 3rd parties will be, you will non benefit financially, and once you lot have opted-in you lot can never completely opt-out.
2. Your genome contains a LOT more information than we currently understand, and what we currently empathise is also a lot more than what 23andMe reports back to their customers in the form beginnings, illness predisposition and physical attribute data. What almost ten years from now? Is information technology possible that genetic analysis could one day offer far deeper and more than personal insights into who we are? It is sure to offering greater insight into disease risk (heart illness, mental health, cancer, etc.) and life-expectancy, but possibly also sexual orientation, behavioral tendencies (such as chance tolerance), spirituality, IQ, and more. This makes it a uniquely powerful source of information nearly you – information that is currently (and legally) used for medical, insurance and law enforcement purposes in the United States and elsewhere. What hereafter applications volition arise?
3. Your genome contains a massive corporeality of information almost your family too. Non just your firsthand family, but distant cousins that you lot've never met and family even so to exist built-in. Exposing your genetic information exposes theirs as well – and this can't be undone. In the Us or other jurisdictions this might have pregnant unforeseen consequences such as affecting their insurability or making them easier targets of law enforcement. As individuals exercise we have the right to expose individual information about our family members?
4. Ensuring your (and your family'south) genetic privacy is not currently possible. I'll explain below why 23andMe and like companies are unable to make these promises, despite assurances that your genetic privacy is safeguarded.
5. Losing your (and your family's) genetic privacy is irreversible. You have one genetic blueprint, parts of which you share with your family unit members. Different your email password, this data cannot be changed, it is who you are. When y'all sign upward for their service you hold to let them to permanently retain your genetic information along with various other bits of information they take collected on y'all – even if you close your business relationship with them. Your genetic privacy volition forevermore residuum in their hands.

I would expect that 99% of their electric current customers are unaware of the higher up, and so are these customers really offering informed consent? Even if they understood the above, informed consent requires a reasonable agreement of what is going to be done with your personal information and its associated risks – which is non even so articulate.

What virtually the 20% of customers who opt-out of 'sharing' their genetic data with third-parties? Certainly, these customers' genetic privacy is safeguarded, right? And for those who do 'consent' to sharing, the company claims to do this anonymously, so why am I so paranoid?

Doesn't 23andMe already protect my privacy?

Heck, they even take a page on their website titled "Can I be genotyped anonymously?".

The short respond is yep, they near definitely will try to protect your privacy, to the level that they are currently legally required to, and according to the 23andMe privacy statement and terms of service – which incidentally they take the right to modify at whatever time as long equally they inform you of the changes.

Feeling secure? Keep reading.

I take no doubt that the people working at this company and the many others like it have the best intention to maintain your genetic privacy, subsequently all, they desire consumers to keep sending them their DNA. Simply are 23andMe's all-time efforts and 'best practices' enough? Do companies know how to safeguard customer information? Relentless data breaches at endless major engineering companies suggests otherwise. Even so-chosen 'unhackable' blockchain technology is now getting hacked. For instance, 23andMe does not require two-factor authentication (such as by texting a passcode to your phone) earlier allowing you to download your raw genetic data from their website – which is something my Gmail account at present requires if I wish to adjust my settings.

Not surprisingly, the 23andMe privacy policy states:

"In the effect of a information breach it is possible that your data could be associated with your identity, which could be used confronting your interests."

For which I'm sure they will offer you a heartfelt amends for the irreversible and unprecedentedly thorough loss of your and your family's privacy.

But I'1000 actually far more than concerned about something more than profound than routine data breaches: does 23andMe really understand how to protect genetic privacy? Does any concern? Does anyone?

Practice even scientists and policy makers know how to safeguard my genetic privacy?

Steady strides are existence made in legislating improve concern practices for safeguarding consumer privacy, only genetic privacy is an entirely dissimilar beast. Scientists and policy makers appear to still be largely unaware of how hands identifiable your genetic information really is, of how all-time to protect it, and of how consequential, far reaching and irreversible whatever loss of genetic privacy would be.

For example, a written report by Dr. Yaniv Erlich and colleagues published in 2015 (ref 1) demonstrated that 'de-identified' (i.e. 'anonymous') genetic data of people who donated to the 1000 Genomes Project could exist easily re-identified (i.e. the person'southward names and addresses could be found) using a genealogical exam called 'Y chromosome surname inference'. This finding prompted the one thousand Genomes Project to remove donors' ages from their public database – one unnecessary piece of information that researchers used to help expose the donors' true identities.

In some other example, in 2013 the European Molecular Biological science Laboratory (EMBL) published the genetic profile of a especially famous experimental homo cell line known every bit HeLa cells. In doing then they exposed personal genetic information about the family of the donor. Later being publicly ridiculed for their mistake EMBL responded by removing the genetic information from public access.

Policy makers as well appear to have been caught flat-footed by the special privacy concerns created by genetic information. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) sets the rules that govern how patient data is protected in the medical field. Only HIPAA does not consider sure patient demographic information such as age, or country of residence to be 'identifiable' information. Nor are direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies similar 23andMe fifty-fifty required to follow HIPAA patient privacy rules. Broadly speaking, it appears that genetic information is currently not widely considered to be data that tin exist used to identity an individual (ref 2,three) – a perception that is obviously outdated.

I helpful get-go step would exist to make the practice of re-identifying individuals based on their genetic information illegal.

How easy would it really exist for someone to identify me from my genetic profile?

If the genie wasn't already out of the bottle, it certainly escaped in April 2018. Law enforcement revealed that they adamant the identity of the Aureate State Killer, a 32-year-old cold-instance, in 4 months using law-breaking scene DNA and a publicly bachelor genealogy database. This database, called GEDmatch, contains the genetic profiles of effectually one million people. Detectives used the DNA to place a tertiary-caste cousin, information that helped betrayal the identity of the doubtable. Constabulary enforcement agencies are now eagerly employing this arroyo to solve other cases, both common cold and warm (ref 2).

Simply is information technology reasonable to think that people or organizations exterior of law enforcement would be able to pull off a similar feat using your genetic information?

Wouldn't this be unreasonably difficult, or rarely successful? After all, the database used in the Gilded State Killer case contained the genetic profiles of only about 1 meg people. What are the chances that I have a cousin who donated their DNA to this database? Compared to a population of 325.vii meg Americans, finding 1 person based on their DNA lonely would be like finding a needle in a haystack.

A 2d study past Dr. Erlich and his team published in November 2018 asked merely this question (ref ii), and the results are equal parts fascinating and unnerving.

Their study was broken down into two parts: first, they tried to determine how likely is it that an existing genetic database would contain a distant cousin of a target of interest (say for example, you). The second part was, if they did find your afar cousin, how hard would it be to employ that information to unmask your identity.

Role 1: How likely is it that existing genetic databases comprise at least a afar cousin of mine?

The showtime question they asked was how likely is it that a genetic database would contain a third-degree or closer relative of a person of interest (for example, y'all), as occurred in the Gold State Killer example?

Studying a database of ane.28 one thousand thousand genetic profiles of people of primarily Northern European decent (a database belonging to MyHeritage, a straight-to-consumer genetic testing service similar to but much smaller than 23andMe), Erlich and colleagues determined that nearly 60% of the time they could find a third-cousin or closer match for a person of European descent. Inappreciably a rare event if y'all happen to be a white American.

Even more impressive, they roughly estimated that a genetic database containing every bit little as ii% of the adults of a population would contain at least a tertiary-cousin match for 99% of the people in that population. For Americans of European descent, this would crave a database of but about 3 one thousand thousand genetic profiles, or just over twice the size of the database they had.

In other words it'south likely that 23andMe, with their database of over 5 1000000 people, already has the genetic profile of at to the lowest degree i of your third-cousins or some closer relative.

In fact, at that place's also a reasonable chance that the publicly bachelor GEDmatch database does too. And if either of these databases don't now, they will before long; growth of the direct-to-consumer genetic testing market is impressive.

Part 2: How likely is information technology that a match to my distant cousin could expose my identity?

What does information technology mean to be able to match your genetic profile to that of your distant cousin? A lot. Using public records one could so identify members of your family tree with surprising accuracy. The authors of this report conservatively estimated that, on boilerplate, finding a distant relative of their target of interest would permit them to reduce their list of 'suspects' from 325.7 meg Americans to but 855. This is not dissimilar what occurred in the Gilded State Killer case, where genealogical analysis narrowed law enforcement's search down to a family tree of k people.

But that's still a grouping of 855 people that you are hiding in.

The researchers then tried to make up one's mind if there were other pieces of relatively easily-accessible information that might be used to narrow this haystack down further, from 855 to one. It turns out that a chip of bones demographic data is all that is needed: your gender, your age, and very a rough thought of where you live.

Your gender tin exist determined from your DNA, and your historic period is not typically a protected piece of data. This is the case with 23andMe: neither slice of data, nor your ethnicity, is stored separately from your genetic profile according to the enquiry consent grade found on the 23andMe website:

"Your genetic data and any other personal information you enter into the website, except for your Registration Information (proper name, contact information, and credit bill of fare data), may be analyzed in the research."

But what about your approximate geographic location? The 23andMe privacy policy commits to protecting my full address. Is that plenty?

The authors assumed that the person looking to unmask your identity could reduce the physical search space down to a 160 km (100 mile) radius. If you were a criminal who left his/her DNA at a crime scene this is a fairly easy leap to make, since most crimes are committed shut to abode. But how could your approximate location be continued to your genetic profile at 23andMe?

Your approximate geographical location may be revealed if:

1. Your registration information with 23andMe is breached in an ever-then-common hack. 23andMe describes storing registration information dissever from their customers' genetic profiles, to help reduce the risk that customer name and address could be connected to their genetic profile.
2. Your geographical information such as land, urban center or zippo code is stored with your genetic profile (making it less secure in case of a hack), and/or is included with your genetic profile when it is shared with third parties (whose data protection practices are unknown). Since high-level geographical information is often considered to be 'pseudo-anonymous' it may not be appropriately safeguarded. HIPAA privacy rules require that urban center and zip code information be safeguarded, merely not land information. 23andMe does not accept to follow HIPPAA (nor do they claim to), and even if they did, there are more than a handful of states with a diameter less than 100 miles.
3. Your IP address was captured while visiting a website, or via an email commutation. Depending on where y'all live and your internet provider, this can offering VERY precise location information (see for yourself here: https://whatismyipaddress.com).
4. Postal information was captured when your DNA sample kit was mailed in to the lab. Even if you didn't include a return address, packages are postmarked with the date and location of the postal service office it was mailed through.

The authors found that by incorporating information about their target'southward historic period, gender, and approximate location (to within a 100-mile radius) this reduced their listing of suspects from 855 to 1-two.

To give y'all an idea of the sensitivity of this approach, if instead they could only estimate your age to within a 10-yr range, they would end up on average with a group of 16-17 people that their target is hiding in, instead of ane-2.

Figure 1: Finding the needle (y'all) in the haystack (the U.s.). Researchers recently demonstrated how relatively easy it is to identify an individual based on their genetic contour, bold they besides had admission to basic demographic information: approximate geographic location within a 100-mile radius, gender and age.

Interestingly, in contrast with the four-month long search that it took law enforcement officials to find the Golden Country Killer using genealogical data, the authors estimated that their strategy for re-identifying a person based on their genetic profile would take a footling more than ane day of work.

Larger and/or combined genetic databases, the availability of social media information, advancements in genetic and online search methodology, and computer automation will only make this strategy more effective and faster to execute. Incidentally, it's also relatively straight forward to discern middle and peel color from genetic contour data, and with more sophisticated whole genome analysis, peradventure eventually pinnacle, weight, facial structure, and more (ref 4).

What if I delete my account with 23andMe afterwards I get my results? Will this protect my privacy?

If yous wish to follow 23andMe's terms of service to the letter (I suggest an culling strategy below), your best chance at protecting your genetic privacy would be to:

1. Opt-out of sharing your genetic profile to reduce the gamble that unnamed third-parties intentionally or unintentionally exercise you lot damage.
2. Opt-out of having your sample stored to reduce the risk that a more revealing genetic analysis might be done on your sample without your permission – such as full genome sequencing.
3. Close your business relationship with them after collecting your reports and raw information. This prevents you from benefiting from whatsoever additional genetic analysis they may offer you in the hereafter if you retained an active account. You can read about endmost your 23andMe business relationship here. However, according to the 23andMe privacy statement they will all the same retain all information derived from whatsoever genetic tests they have already performed on your sample, forth with "other information" which we know includes at least your gender, nascency date and email address – data that could still be used to place you.

Below I'll describe a more robust strategy for protecting your genetic privacy while using this or any other direct-to-consumer genetic testing service.

Is it really possible to get anonymous 23andMe results?

Truly anonymous 23andMe results? No. But you lot can definitely obtain your results More than anonymously – past stripping away as much accompanying data almost yous equally possible, thereby making it less likely and/or too onerous for someone to reasonably identify you based on your DNA. This is our goal.

What cardinal data must I keep safety to preserve my genetic privacy?

As we saw higher up, if someone had your genetic profile along with some relatively basic demographic information about you, and an internet connection, they could likely determine your proper noun with surprising accurateness.

So what data should you lot go on hidden? Equally many pieces of information about you equally possible. Each piece of demographic data you let to exist associated with your genetic profile will significantly shrink the haystack that yous're hiding in.

You won't exist able to hide your gender because this is already known by 23andMe based on the presence or absence of genetic markers (called SNPs) found on the Y chromosome carried simply by men. But hiding everything else, including your proper name, historic period and location data is certainly necessary to preserve your privacy.

A step-by-step approach to bearding 23andMe testing

1. Purchase a kit
   1. BASIC PRIVACY: Purchase your kit through Amazon (hither if you're Canadian, or here if you're American) rather than have it mailed to yous directly from 23andMe. This is a reasonably proficient way to ensure that your name and home accost do not end up connected to your genetic profile in 23andMe's database, merely it is non a perfect solution. Even sellers of products that are fulfilled by Amazon (as in this case) receive the full name and accost of each purchaser. But is it unlikely that 23andMe links this data to the specific kit purchased (and its association kit registration number), or that they cross-verify purchaser data against the registration information used when the kit is registered on their website. Later on all, I could exist purchasing the kit every bit a gift for a friend. One way to further increase your anonymity would be to have a friend purchase the kit for you through their account. Disclaimer: nosotros will receive a small commission if you make a purchase through the Amazon links higher up. We utilise whatsoever commissions to assist support our blog – so thank you :)
   2. STEALTH Style: Ask a friend to purchase you a kit through Amazon, and have information technology mailed to their home address. if you are in the US you could besides purchase a kit in person from Walmart, CVS Pharmacy, Walgreens or some Best Buy locations (acquire more than on 23andMe's website here). This is just the drove kit, so it volition appear to be less expensive. When you lot annals the kit on the 23andMe website you will exist asked to pay a secondary "lab fee", so the cost works out the same as if you bought it directly. Pay for the kit in cash to further protect your identity. If you're feeling concerned that 23andMe might continue record of which kits are sent to each store (and could therefore make up one's mind your estimate location), accept your friend who lives in some other city buy you ane and accept them transport information technology to you.
2. Mail service in your sample
   1. Basic PRIVACY: Collect your saliva in the collection tube and put information technology in the return envelope. Don't put your return address on the package. Although information technology's unlikely that the laboratory receiving information technology would be recording this information (nor the postmark information which shows which mail office it was mailed from), your return address is unnecessary to include.
   2. STEALTH MODE: Definitely practise not include a render accost. Mail your sample from a post-office that is non near where you live (more than 100 miles away would be squeamish). Peradventure mail it to your friend who lives elsewhere and accept them mail service it in for yous instead.
3. Register your kit with 23andMe
   1. BASIC PRIVACY: You need to annals your kit on the 23andMe website earlier you can get your sample analyzed and collect your results. 23andMe does collect and shop IP addresses for marketing purposes, and this includes information about your location. Notwithstanding, your IP address is not probable to exist cross-referenced or otherwise stored with your account information. Enter a fake name (especially last name) and age, and an address nowhere virtually where you live (since they won't exist mailing you annihilation anyhow). Enter an email address that does not include your name. Exercise not provide them with whatever optional information or fill up out whatever surveys. If you wish to opt-out of allowing your genetic profile and DNA sample from being used in research, exercise and so. This protects your so called 'anonymized' genetic profile and DNA sample from existence shared with tertiary parties and decreases your risk of inappropriate utilise or information alienation. You can also opt-out of having them search for any family unit relatives, simply this doesn't change much from a privacy perspective since it is very likely that 23andMe automatically includes every genetic contour in their genealogy database. If you make up one's mind to opt-in to looking for your relatives, you will have control over what information is shared (if any) with anyone who finds you through this service and tries to attain out to you. If y'all bought your kit in person y'all will also need to pay the lab fee through their website. To practise this yous should use a "non-reloadable" prepaid debit card registered with the same false information yous used to register on the 23andMe website (you lot can only do this if the carte du jour is non a "reloadable" one).
   2. STEALTH MODE: Log into their website using a VPN server to protect your IP accost. At that place are still some complimentary VPN services that are trustworthy (read a review here), only commonly y'all get what you lot pay for. If you are very serious most your security, use an electronic mail accost that you created without using your real proper name, and that didn't require you to verify your identity using your phone number (this is becoming increasingly difficult to find, but one and good example is Tutanota). When you register with 23andMe, use your fake identity, choose an age that is at to the lowest degree 10 years different from your truthful age, opt-out of sharing your genetic profile and Deoxyribonucleic acid sample for research purposes, and opt-out of participating in their relative finder service.
4. Get your anonymous 23andMe results
   1. Bones PRIVACY: Log into their website and call up your results – download the reports they offer you every bit well as your bearding 23andMe raw data so that you have it for your ain purposes at present and in the future. Close your account if you lot wish to not receive any boosted analysis of your results that become available in the futurity. This will remove some of your fake information from their database, only not everything, and as well means that your Deoxyribonucleic acid sample will be pulled out of their freezer and destroyed. If y'all don't shut your account you lot can still enquire to have your Dna sample destroyed. Past i unconfirmed account this may exist cumbersome to practise, but worth it to avoid the possibility of further (and possibly more than revealing) unauthorized analysis of information technology.
   2. STEALTH MODE: Log in to view your results through your VPN server. Download your reports AND your raw information so that yous can use information technology afterward. Close your account with 23andMe.

If you're really going all-in on protecting your privacy, by now you owe your friend a beer! Yous might as well wish to take the opportunity to explain to them why yous must now unfriend them on Facebook – merely kidding (sort of).

Is this strategy bullet-proof?

No. The goal of this anonymization strategy is to:

1. Make information technology highly improbable that your identity could exist accidentally linked to your genetic data if 23andMe is ever hacked or inadvertently leaks identifying data to a third-political party (use the Bones SECURITY approach to protect against this).
2. Make it highly improbable that your identity could be purposely revealed by 23andMe or a 3rd-political party for harmful purposes (utilise STEALTH Fashion to protect against this).

Proceed in mind that if you are a person of considerable interest to a police enforcement agency you lot should avert sharing your Dna with anyone who manages a genetic database. But this doesn't hateful that your Deoxyribonucleic acid still tin can't exist used against y'all. If these agencies have recovered a sample of your Deoxyribonucleic acid from a crime scene and can make a genetic match to a distant relative of yours they will have decent odds of tracking you down regardless – so consider turning yourself in.

Is anonymizing my 23andMe results in this manner illegal? Unethical?

Let me preface this by stating that I'chiliad non a lawyer, ethicist, chaplain, or your mom, and then feel gratuitous to follow your own path.

It is not illegal to submit inaccurate information about yourself to a corporation in this way. With that said, their terms of service also gives them the correct to ban y'all from their service and deny y'all a refund.

Would information technology be unethical to mislead 23andMe most my identity? It'southward not clear to me how obscuring my identity from them would cause the corporation measurable harm. Conversely, offering them my personal information could potentially expose innocent people (me, my children and my extended family unit) to significant and irreversible damage either now or in the future. Since lying on their forms isn't likely to undermine the importance of truthfulness in our social club, I think we're all practiced.

Of course, I volition all the same maintain an agile email address with them so that they could always reach me in the future should a necessary (and legal) reason arise – like perhaps to inform me of a information breach.

Am I going to get my 23andMe results anonymously?

I'm still considering it.

The direct-to-consumer genetic testing surround is nevertheless in the 'wild-west' phase: no one really knows what our genomes comprise about us nor how businesses and governments might wish to capitalize on this information; appropriate genetic privacy standards do not exist; major corporations appear unable to safeguard user information from hackers; then-called 'anonymous' genetic profiles combined with other 'non-identifiable' demographic information is sufficient (or volition presently exist) to irreversibly link your identity to your genetic profile.Y'all take only one genetic pattern, and I encounter a future where some of us accept retained our ownership, while others have irreversibly lost it.

In the meantime, I recently constitute out that a family member of mine has but taken the ancestry.com exam (yet another horse has left the barn!) and so I'm going to spend some fourth dimension exploring their data first. I'll keep you lot posted.

What exercise you think? Please comment below, in particular if you lot have suggestions for improving my BASIC PRIVACY and STEALTH MODE strategies for anonymous 23andMe testing.

[Update: If you're interested in learning more most genetic privacy and bearding 23andMe testing you tin also check out a new projection that I'm involved with: DNASquirrel – helping y'all protect your genetic privacy when taking23andMe, Ancestry, or other direct-to-consumer genetic exam.]

References

1. Gymrek Grand., McGuire A.L., Golan D., et al. Identifying personal genomes past surname inference. Science. 2013 January xviii:339(6117):321-4. Abstract
2. Erlich Y., Shor T., Pe'er L., et al. Identity inference of genomic data using long-range familial searches. Scientific discipline. 2018 Nov 9;362(6415):690-694. Abstract
3. Schwab A.P., Luu H.S., Wang J., Park J.Y. Genomic Privacy. Clin Chem. 2018 Dec;64(12):1696-1703. Abstruse
4. Lippert C., Sabatini R., Maher M.C., et al. Identification of individuals by trait prediction using whole-genome sequencing data. Proc Natl Acad Sci Us. 2017 114:10166 –71. Full article

Source: https://torontophysiotherapy.ca/genetic-privacy-anonymous-23andme-results/

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